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REVIEW
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Recent advances in nanomedicine for ocular drug delivery

Nicholas Peh Hian Tung1* ,  Wei Meng Lim2 ,  Yun Khoon Liew3 ,  Chaw Jiang Lim4 ,  Yoon Yee Then5 ,  Kok Whye Cheong6 ,  Lai Chun Wong5*
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1 Centre for Postgraduate Studies by Research, IMU University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2 School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
3 Department of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy, IMU University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
4 Department of Chemical Science, Faculty of Science, University Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
5 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, IMU University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
6 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
BMT, 00022 https://doi.org/10.12336/bmt.25.00022
Submitted: 2 May 2025 | Revised: 15 June 2025 | Accepted: 18 June 2025 | Published: 21 July 2025
Copyright © 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial–ShareAlike 4.0 License.
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Abstract

Vision impairment is a major global health challenge, with its prevalence projected to rise significantly in the coming decades due to an aging population and increasing rates of chronic diseases. Ocular conditions such as age-related macular degeneration, cataracts, refractive errors, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are among the primary causes of vision loss, collectively affecting nearly 200 million individuals worldwide. This growing burden has intensified the demand for ophthalmic therapies that are more effective, safer, and more targeted. Among existing treatment strategies, ocular drug delivery systems provide a non-invasive route for administering medications directly to ocular tissues. However, their clinical effectiveness is often compromised by various anatomical and physiological barriers, including tear turnover, blinking, nasolacrimal drainage, and blood-ocular barriers, which limit drug retention time and significantly reduce bioavailability. In response to these challenges, the application of nanomedicine has emerged as a highly promising strategy to improve ocular drug delivery. This review presents recent advances in drug nanodelivery systems – such as dendrimers, liposomes, nanoemulsion, solid lipid nanoparticles, in situ gel formulations, exosomes, metal-organic frameworks, and nanocrystals – that have demonstrated advantages in enhancing drug solubility, prolonging drug release, improving corneal penetration, and reducing dosing frequency and systemic side effects. In addition, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and personalized medicine in the development and optimization of ocular nanomedicine is explored. AI tools such as predictive modeling, machine learning algorithms, and data-driven formulation strategies remain underutilized in ophthalmology, yet they offer tremendous potential to accelerate innovation, individualize treatment, and enhance clinical translation. This review concludes that future research should prioritize not only the advancement of safer and more efficient drug nanodelivery systems but also the incorporation of AI to transform ocular drug delivery into a more precise and patient-centered approach.

Keywords
Eye drops
Nanocarrier
Nanoparticle
Nanotechnology
Ocular drug delivery
Funding
Stipend support for NPHT provided by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (Project reference code: FRGS/1/2023/STG05/IMU/02/1).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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