Rittin Abraham Kurien, Gokul Kannan, Kasitpong Thanawut, Supakij Suttiruengwong, Pornsak Sriamornsak

doi:https://doi.org/10.12336/bmt.25.00043

Artificial intelligence (AI) and 3D printing are transforming pharmaceutical manufacturing by enabling the production of personalized medications. AI supports real-time decision-making in diagnostics and robotics, although its application in pharmaceutical research remains at an early stage. 3D printing, particularly additive manufacturing, provides precise control over drug formulation, allowing the design of patient-specific dosage forms with tailored release profiles. Machine learning and deep neural networks are used to predict formulation parameters, optimize processing conditions, and support the design of innovative drug delivery geometries. Technological platforms such as cloud computing and blockchain enhance data security, transparency, and scalability. Printable materials—including thermoplastic polymers, hydrogels, and bioinks—demonstrate utility in AI-assisted manufacturing systems. The integration of AI, smart materials, and 3D printing advances intelligent drug production technologies aligned with Industry 4.0 principles. Key considerations include regulatory compliance, data reliability, ethical implications, and pathways for clinical translation. Clinical medicine is rapidly advancing through the adoption of 3D printing and AI, enabling personalized prosthetics, accurate surgical planning, and bioprinted tissues. AI-driven segmentation and optimization enhance the accuracy and efficiency of 3D-printed anatomical models for pre-operative preparations and medical training. Cardiology, oncology, and orthopedics are increasingly adopting these technologies to improve patient outcomes and clinical workflows. Future directions include broader adoption across specialties, bioprinting for regenerative health care, and AI-optimized systems for targeted drug delivery. This review addresses the current challenges and limitations of AI and 3D-printed medicines, pharmaceutical manufacturing, case studies, ethical considerations, and future perspectives. 

Nicholas Peh Hian Tung, Wei Meng Lim, Yun Khoon Liew, Chaw Jiang Lim, Yoon Yee Then, Kok Whye Cheong, Lai Chun Wong

doi:https://doi.org/10.12336/bmt.25.00022

Vision impairment is a major global health challenge, with its prevalence projected to rise significantly in the coming decades due to an aging population and increasing rates of chronic diseases. Ocular conditions such as age-related macular degeneration, cataracts, refractive errors, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are among the primary causes of vision loss, collectively affecting nearly 200 million individuals worldwide. This growing burden has intensified the demand for ophthalmic therapies that are more effective, safer, and more targeted. Among existing treatment strategies, ocular drug delivery systems provide a non-invasive route for administering medications directly to ocular tissues. However, their clinical effectiveness is often compromised by various anatomical and physiological barriers, including tear turnover, blinking, nasolacrimal drainage, and blood-ocular barriers, which limit drug retention time and significantly reduce bioavailability. In response to these challenges, the application of nanomedicine has emerged as a highly promising strategy to improve ocular drug delivery. This review presents recent advances in drug nanodelivery systems – such as dendrimers, liposomes, nanoemulsion, solid lipid nanoparticles, in situ gel formulations, exosomes, metal-organic frameworks, and nanocrystals – that have demonstrated advantages in enhancing drug solubility, prolonging drug release, improving corneal penetration, and reducing dosing frequency and systemic side effects. In addition, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and personalized medicine in the development and optimization of ocular nanomedicine is explored. AI tools such as predictive modeling, machine learning algorithms, and data-driven formulation strategies remain underutilized in ophthalmology, yet they offer tremendous potential to accelerate innovation, individualize treatment, and enhance clinical translation. This review concludes that future research should prioritize not only the advancement of safer and more efficient drug nanodelivery systems but also the incorporation of AI to transform ocular drug delivery into a more precise and patient-centered approach.

Noor K. Faheed, Rasha Abdul-Hassan Issa, Qahtan A. Hamad, Maryam J. Jaafar, Mahmood S. Mahmood

doi:https://doi.org/10.12336/bmt.25.00016

With the rise in transtibial and transfemoral amputations, the number of athletic amputees has steadily increased. This study aims to develop an alternative prosthetic foot for the lower limb to address the limitations of conventional prosthetic designs and better meet user requirements. The proposed prosthetic foot offers a promising solution by incorporating cost-effective materials and mechanisms. The primary objective is to create a prosthetic device suitable for sports activities – particularly running – allowing lower limb amputees to participate in endurance sports using mechanically enhanced limbs that closely mimic the function and characteristics of natural biological limbs. The mechanical and miscibility properties of the prosthetic foot were evaluated through experimental, theoretical, and numerical approaches. Polyester matrix laminates reinforced with both natural and synthetic fibers were fabricated using a vacuum-assisted system and subjected to tensile, hardness, bending, fatigue, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy tests. To assess loading behavior and user comfort, force plate measurements during the gait cycle provided insight into ground reaction forces, moments, and abutment interface pressures, supplemented by F-Socket testing. Finite element analysis was used to determine the distribution of safety factors, strain energy, total deformation, and equivalent von Mises stress and strain. Laminates reinforced with hybrid glass, carbon, and linen fibers demonstrated optimal tensile strength, bending resistance, fatigue performance, and hardness. FTIR spectroscopy analysis further indicated significant interaction between the fibers and the resin. Gait cycle analysis revealed that the prosthesis made from composites reinforced with carbon, glass, and linen fibers exhibited superior comfort, with a maximum applied force of 610 N and acceptable interface pressure values – making it suitable for prosthetic applications. In conclusion, the selected materials meet established safety standards, confirming their suitability for prosthetic foot design. This study underscores the orthopedic potential of biodegradable materials and highlights advancements in biomedical engineering through enhanced biocompatibility and durability.

Yuting Shen, Jiaying Xiong, Yuchen Zhang, Zhifei Gao, Changhai Ding, Yao Lu

doi:https://doi.org/10.12336/bmt.25.00011

Bone and joint diseases, including bone fractures, osteoarthritis, and bone tumors, pose significant health challenges due to their debilitating effects on the musculoskeletal system. Conservative therapy and surgical treatment do not always achieve satisfactory outcomes in orthopedics, especially for degenerative bone and joint diseases. Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapy refers to the production of functional proteins and peptides by introducing mRNA into the body. The success of mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic highlights the unique advantages of mRNA therapy, including biocompatibility, avoidance of genomic integration, and flexible, sustained delivery. These features make mRNA therapy a versatile therapeutic modality for the treatment of orthopedic diseases. In this review, we first provide an overview of the latest advances in mRNA therapy. We introduce structural modifications of mRNA and advanced gene-editing technologies, including modifications to nucleosides, mRNA domains, and codon sequences. We then discuss the development of mRNA delivery systems, such as nanomaterials, biomimetic carriers, and hydrogels, which enhance mRNA stability, reduce immunogenicity, and improve targeted delivery. This review also explores the application of mRNA therapy in orthopedic diseases, with a particular focus on its utilization in treating bone tumors and degenerative disorders. Despite promising developments, several challenges remain, including optimizing delivery efficiency, prolonging protein expression, and addressing tissue-specific barriers. Accordingly, the current limitations and future directions of mRNA therapy in orthopedic applications are emphasized. In conclusion, mRNA therapy holds great promise and may open new avenues for the treatment of orthopedic diseases and related fields.

Yu Chen, Zhiyong Chen, Kewen Lei, Jiandong Ding, Lin Yu

2025, 6(2): 181–201. doi:https://doi.org/10.12336/bmt.24.00052

The field of orthopaedic implants has experienced rapid growth in recent decades, evolving from a few obscure examples to become one of the most vibrant domains within regenerative medicine. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) stands out as a formidable competitor in this field due to its exceptional biocompatibility and appropriate mechanical strength. However, the clinical application of PEEK is limited by its inherent biological inertness. Therefore, numerous studies have focused on overcoming the bio-inert issue of PEEK using surface activation techniques. It is necessary to delve into the intricate effects of these modifications and their corresponding methods. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of contemporary research on surface modification for enhancing osseointegration of PEEK implants, categorising them into four parts based on their modification methods and techniques used: (1) physical treatment, (2) wet chemical methods, (3) combination of physical and chemical treatments, and (4) bioactive coating. Finally, we outline the challenges and unmet needs that must be addressed by future designs of PEEK surfaces. Overall, altering the surface morphology and/or surface group of PEEK to obtain a rough, porous, hydrophilic, and bioactive surface, or incorporating bioactive agents/coatings with bone-forming abilities onto the surface of PEEK has shown great potential for promoting osseointegration, which can serve as a solid foundation for subsequent clinical translation.